## Delta modulation and Demodulation

DM is done on an over sampled message signal in its basic form, DM provides a stair case approximated signal to the over sampled version of message signal.

i.e, Delta Modulation (DM) is a Modulation scheme in which an incoming  message signal is over sampled (i.e, at a rate much higher than the Nyquist rate $f_{s}>&space;2f_{m}$) to purposely increase the correlation between adjacent samples of the signal. Over sampling is done to permit the use of a sample Quantizing strategy for constructing the encoded signal.

Signaling rate and Transmission Band Width are quite large in PCM. DM is used to overcome these problems in PCM .

DM transmits one bit per sample.

The process of approximation in Delta Modulation is as follows:-

The difference between the input ($x[nT_{s}]$) and the approximation ($x[(n-1)T_{s}]$) is quantized into only two levels $\pm&space;\Delta$ corresponding to Positive and negative differences.

i.e, If the approximation  ($x[(n-1)T_{s}]$) falls below the signal ($x[nT_{s}]$)at any sampling epoch(the beginning of a period)output signal level is increased by $\Delta$.

On the other hand the approximation   ($x[(n-1)T_{s}]$) lies above the signal ($x[nT_{s}]$) , output signal level is diminished by $\Delta$ provided that the input signal does not change too rapidly from sample to sample.

it is observed that the  change in stair case approximation lies with in  $\pm&space;\Delta$ .

This process can be illustrated in the following figure

Delta Modulated System:- The DM system consists of Delta Modulator and Delta Demodulator.

Delta Modulator:-

Mathematical equations involved in DM Transmitter are

error signal: $e[nT_{s}]=x[nT_{s}]-x_{q}[(n-1)T_{s}]$

Present sample of the (input) sampled signal: $x[nT_{s}]$

last sample approximation of stair case signal: $x_{q}[(n-1)T_{s}]$

Quantized  error signal( output of one-bit Quantizer): $e_{q}[nT_{s}]$

if         $x[nT_{s}]\geq&space;x_{q}[(n-1)T_{s}]&space;\Rightarrow&space;e_{q}[nT_{s}]&space;=&space;\Delta$.

and  $x[nT_{s}]<&space;x_{q}[(n-1)T_{s}]&space;\Rightarrow&space;e_{q}[nT_{s}]&space;=&space;-\Delta$.

encoding has to be done on the after Quantization that is when the output level is increased by $\Delta$ from its previous quantized level, bit ‘1’ is transmitted .

similarly when output is diminished by $\Delta$ from the previous level  a ‘0’ is transmitted.

from the accumulator $x_{q}[nT_{s}]=x_{q}[(n-1)T_{s}]+&space;e_{q}[nT_{s}]$

$e_{q}[nT_{s}]=e[nT_{s}]+&space;q[nT_{s}]$

where $q[nT_{s}]$ is the Quantization error.

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## Fourier Series and it’s applications

The starting point of Fourier Series is the development of representation of signals as linear combination (sum of) of a set of basic signals.

$f(t)\approx&space;C_{1}x_{1}(t)+C_{2}x_{2}(t)+.......+C_{n}x_{n}(t)+....$

The alternative representation if  a set of complex exponentials are used,

$f(t)\approx&space;C_{1}e^{j\omega&space;_{o}t}+C_{2}e^{2j\omega&space;_{o}t}+.......+C_{n}e^{jn\omega&space;_{o}t}+....$

The resulting representations are known as Fourier Series in Continuous-Time [Fourier Transform in the case of Non-Periodic signal]. Here we focus on representation of Continuous-Time and Discrete-Time periodic signals in terms of basic signals as Fourier Series and extend the analysis to the Fourier Transform representation of broad classes of aperiodic, finite energy signals.

These Fourier Series & Fourier Transform representations are most powerful tools used

1. In the analyzation of signals and LTI systems.
2. Designing of Signals & Systems.
3. Gives insight to S&S.

The development of Fourier series analysis has a long history involving a great many individuals and the investigation of many different physical phenomena.

The concept of using “Trigonometric Sums”, that is sum of harmonically related sines and cosines (or) periodic complex exponentials are used to predict astronomical events.

Similarly, if we consider the vertical deflection $f(t,x)$ of the string at time t and at a distance x along the string then for any fixed instant of time, the normal modes are harmonically related sinusoidal functions of x.

The scientist Fourier’s work, which motivated him physically was the phenomenon of heat propagation and diffusion. So he found that the temperature distribution through a body can be represented by using harmonically related sinusoidal signals.

In addition to this he said that any periodic signal could be represented by such a series.

Fourier obtained a representation for aperiodic (or) non-periodic signals not as weighted sum of harmonically related sinusoidals but as weighted integrals of Sinusoids that are not harmonically related, which is known as Fourier Integral (or) Fourier Transform.

In mathematics, we use the analysis of Fourier Series and Integrals in

1. The theory of Integration.
2. Point-set topology.
3. and in the eigen function expansions.

In addition to the original studies of vibration and heat diffusion, there are numerous other problems in science and Engineering in which sinusoidal signals arise naturally, and therefore Fourier Series and Fourier T/F’s plays an important role.

for example, Sine signals arise naturally in describing the motion of the planets and the periodic behavior of the earth’s climate.

A.C current sources generate sinusoidal signals as voltages and currents. As we will see the tools of Fourier analysis enable us to analyze the response of an LTI system such as a circuit to such Sine inputs.

Waves in the ocean consists of the linear combination of sine waves with different spatial periods (or) wave lengths.

Signals transmitted by radio and T.V stations are sinusoidal in nature as well.

The problems of mathematical physics focus on phenomena in Continuous Time, the tools of Fourier analysis for DT signals and systems have their own distinct historical roots and equally rich set of applications.

In particular, DT concepts and methods are fundamental to the discipline of numerical analysis , formulas for the processing of discrete sets of data points to produce numerical approximations for interpolation and differentiation were being investigated.

FFT known as Fast Fourier Transform algorithm was developed, which suited perfectly for efficient digital implementation and it reduced the time required to compute transform by orders of magnitude (which utilizes the DTFS and DTFT practically).

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## Block Diagram of Digital Communication System/Elements of DCS

A General Communication System can be viewed as a Transmitting unit and a Receiving Unit connected by a medium(Channel). Obviously Transmitter and Receiver consists of various sub systems (or) blocks.

Our basic aim is to understand the various modules and sub systems in the system. If we are trying to understand the design and various features of DCS , it is plus imperative that we have to understand how we should design a transmitter and we must understand how to design a very good quality Receiver. Therefore one must know the features of the channel to design a good Transmitter as well as receiver that is the channel and it’s contribution will come repeatedly in digital Communications.

Source:- the primary block (or) the starting point of a DCS is an information source, it may be an analog/digital source , for example the signal considered is analog in nature, then the signal generated by the source is some kind of electrical signal which is random in nature. if the signal is a speech signal (not an electrical signal) that has to be converted into electrical signal by means of a Transducer, which can be considered as a part of source itself.

Sampling & Quantization:- the secondary block involves the conversion of analog to discrete signal

this involves the following steps

Sampling:- it is the process that involves in the conversion of Continuous Amplitude Continuous Time (CACT) signal into Continuous Amplitude Discrete Time (CADT) signal.

Quantization:- it is the process that involves in the conversion of Continuous Amplitude Discrete Time (CADT) signal into Discrete Amplitude Discrete Time (DADT) signal.

Source Encoder:-  An important problem in  Digital Communications is the efficient representation of data generated by a Discrete Source, this is accomplished by source encoder.

” The process of representation of incoming data  from a Discrete source into a more suitable form required for Transmission is known as source encoding”

Note:-The blocks Sampler, Quantizer followed by an Encoder constructs ADC (Analog to Digital Converter).

∴ the output of Source encoder is a Digital Signal, the advantages of Source coding are

• It reduces the Redundancy.
• Minimizes the average bit rate.

Channel encoder:-Channel coding is also known as error control coding. Channel coding is a technique which reduces the probability of error $P_{e}$ by reducing Signal to Noise Ratio at the expense of Transmission Band Width.The device that performs the channel coding is known as Channel encoder.

Channel encoding increases the redundancy of incoming data , this also involves error detection and error correction  along with the channel decoder at the receiver.

Spreading Techniques:- Spread Spectrum techniques are the methods by which a signal generated with a particular Band Width is deliberately spread in the frequency domain, resulting in a signal with a wider Band width.

There are two types of spreading techniques available

1. Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum Techniques.
2. Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum Techniques.

The output of a spreaded signal is very much larger than incoming sequence. Spreading increases the BW required for transmission, which is a disadvantage even though spreading is done for high security of data.

SS techniques are used in Military applications.

Modulator:- Spreaded sequence is modulated by using digital modulation schemes like ASK, PSK, FSK etc depending up on the requirement, now the transmitting antenna transmits the modulated data into the channel.

Receiver:- Once you understood the process involved in transmitter Block. One should perform reverse operations in the receiver block.

i.e the input of the demodulator is demodulated after that de-spreaded and then the channel decoder removes the redundancy added by the channel encoder ,the output of channel decoder is then source decoded and is given to Destination.

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